Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mortality Among Black Men in the USA

  • Published:
Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Importance

Black men have the lowest life expectancy of all major ethnic-sex populations in the USA, yet no recent studies have comprehensively examined black male mortality.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to analyze recent mortality trends for black men, including black to white (B to W) disparities.

Design

The study design was national mortality surveillance for 2000 to 2014.

Setting

The setting was the USA.

Population

All black non-Hispanic males aged ≥15 years old in the USA, including institutionalized persons, were included.

Exposure

The 15 leading causes of death were analyzed.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Linear regression of log-transformed annual age-adjusted death rates was used to calculate average annual percent change (AAPC) in mortality. Black to white (B to W) disparity rate ratios (RR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were compared for 2000 and 2014. The most recent available social and economic profile data were obtained from the U.S. Census of Population.

Results

The top five causes of death for black men in 2014, with percentage of total deaths, were (1) heart disease (24.8%), (2) cancer (23.0%), (3) unintentional injuries (5.8%), (4) stroke (5.1%), and (5) homicide (4.3%). Significant mortality declines for 12 of the 15 leading causes occurred through 2014, with the strongest decline for HIV/AIDS (AAPC −8.0, 95% CI −8.8 to −7.1). Only Alzheimer’s disease, ranked #15, significantly increased (AAPC +2.5, 95% CI +1.4 to +3.7). Significant black disadvantage persisted for 10 of the 15 leading causes in 2014, including homicide (RR = 10.43, 95% CI 9.98 to 10.89), HIV/AIDS (RR = 8.01, 95% CI 7.50 to 8.54), diabetes (RR = 1.88, 95% CI 1.82 to 1.93), and stroke (RR = 1.61, 95% CI 1.57 to 1.65). The B to W disparity did not improve for heart disease (RR 1.24 in 2000 vs. RR 1.23 in 2014), but did improve for cancer (RR 1.39 in 2000 vs. 1.20 in 2014). Death rates were significantly lower in black men for five causes, including unintentional injuries (RR = 0.83, 95% CI 0.80 to 0.84), chronic lower respiratory diseases (RR = 0.75, 95% CI 0.73 to 0.78), and suicide (RR = 0.37, 95% CI 0.35 to 0.39).

Conclusions and Relevance

Total mortality significantly declined for black men from 2000 to 2014, and the overall B to W disparity narrowed to RR = 1.21 (95% CI 1.20 to 1.23) in 2014. However, significant black disadvantages relative to white men persisted for 10 leading causes of death.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2014: With Special Feature on Adults Aged 55–64. Hyattsville, MD.2015:Table 16, pages 84–85.

  2. Irma TE, Beltran-Sanchez H, Macinko J. The contribution of health care and other interventions to black-white disparities in life expectancy, 1980-2007. Popul Res Policy Rev. 2014;33(1):97–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Rawlings LA. Understanding the Environmental Contexts of Boys and Young Men of Color. Washington D.C.: Urban Institute;2015.

  4. Barnett E, Armstrong D, Casper M. Evidence of increasing coronary heart disease mortality among black men of lower social class. Ann Epidemiol. 1999;9(8):464–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Williams DR, Collins C. Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep. 2001;116(5):404–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. DeNavas-Walt C, Proctor BD. Income and Poverty in the United States: 2014. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office;2015. P60–252.

  7. Landivar LC. Disparities in STEM Employment by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin. Washington D.C.: United States Census Bureau; 2013.

  8. U.S. Bureau of the Census. The American Community - Blacks: 2004. Washington D.C.2007. ACS-04.

  9. Barnett E, Williams CR, Moore L, Chen F. Social class and heart disease mortality among African Americans. Ethnicity & Disease. 2002;12(Supplement 3):S3.76–S73.81.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Murray CJL. Mortality among black men. NEJM. 1990;322(3):205–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Barnett E, Casper ML, Halverson JA, et al. Men and Heart Disease: An Atlas of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Mortality. Atlanta GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2001. ftp://ftp.cdc.gov/pub/publications/mens_atlas/00-atlas-all.pdf.

  12. Vaughn AS, Quick H, Pathak EB, Kramer MR, Casper M. Disparities in temporal and geographic patterns of decline in heart disease mortality by race and gender in the United States, 1973-2010. J Am Heart Assoc. 2015;4:e002567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking - 50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: 2014.

  14. Yoon SS, Ostchega Y, Louis T. Recent trends in the prevalence of high blood pressure and its treatment and control, 1999-2008. NCHS Data Brief. 2010;48:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Millett GA, Peterson JL, Flores SA, et al. Comparisons of disparities and risks of HIV infection in black and other men who have sex with men in Canada, UK, and USA: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2012;380(9839):341–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Hall HI, Frazier EL, Rhodes P, et al. Differences in human immunodeficiency virus care and treatment among subpopulations in the United States. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(14):1337–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Hennekens CH, Drowos J, Levine RS. Mortality from homicide among young black men: a new American tragedy. Am J Med. 2013;126(4):282–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Brunkard J, Namulanda G, Ratard R. Hurricane Katrina deaths, Louisiana, 2005. Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2008;2:215–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. U.S. Bureau of the Census. American Community Survey Detailed Data Profiles. http://www.census.gov/acs/www/data/data-tables-and-tools/data-profiles/2014/. Accessed January–July 2015.

  20. National Center for Health Statistics. Underlying Cause of Death 1999–2013 on CDC WONDER Online Database, released 2015. . Data are from the Multiple Cause of Death Files, 1999–2013, as compiled from data provided by the 1957 vital statistics jurisdictions through the Vital Statistics Cooperative Program. Available at: http://wonder.cdc.gov /ucd-icd10.html. Accessed Multiple Dates April–September, 2015.

  21. National Center for Health Statistics. Population Data Documentation. http://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/help/ucd.html#Population%20Data, 2015.

  22. Talih M, Huang DT. Measuring progress toward target attainment and the elimination of health disparities in Healthy People 2020. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2016.

  23. Barnett E, Casper M. A definition of "social environment". Am J Public Health. 2001;91(3):465.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Schulz AJ, Williams DR, Israel BA, LB L. Racial and spatial relations as fundamental determinants of health in Detroit. Milbank Q. 2002;80(4):677–707.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Kim TJ, von dem Knesebeck O. Is an insecure job better for health than having no job at all? A systematic review of studies investigating the health-related risks of both job insecurity and unemployment. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:985.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Benach J, Vives A, Tarafa G, Delclos C, Muntaner C. What should we know about precarious employment and health in 2025? framing the agenda for the next decade of research. International journal of epidemiology. 2016.

  27. Doede MS. Black jobs matter: Racial inequalities in conditions of employment and subsequent health outcomes. Public Health Nursing. 2015.

  28. Clougherty JE, Souza K, Cullen MR. Work and its role in shaping the social gradient in health. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1186:102–24.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Fransson EI, Heikkilä K, Nyberg ST, et al. Job strain as a risk factor for leisure-time physical inactivity: an individual-participant meta-analysis of up to 170,000 men and women: the IPD-Work Consortium. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;176(12):1078–89.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Heikkilä K, Fransson EI, Nyberg ST, et al. Job strain and health-related lifestyle: findings from an individual-participant meta-analysis of 118,000 working adults. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(11):1090–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Shaikh RA, Sikora A, Siahpush M, Singh GK. Occupational variations in obesity, smoking, heavy drinking, and non-adherence to physical activity recommendations: findings from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey. Am J Ind Med. 2015;58(1):77–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. 2013 Minority Veterans Report. Washington D.C.2015.

  33. The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. Health status of Vietnam veterans. I. Psychosocial characteristics. The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. JAMA. 1988;259(18):2701–2707.

  34. Hoge CW, Castro CA, Messer SC, McGurk D, Cotting DI, Koffman RL. Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(1):13–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. Health status of Vietnam veterans. II. Physical Health. The Centers for Disease Control Vietnam Experience Study. JAMA. 1988;259(18):2708–2714.

  36. Hoerster KD, Lehavot K, Simpson T, McFall M, Reiber G, Nelson KM. Health and health behavior differences: U.S. military, veteran, and civilian men. Am J Prev Med. 2012;43(5):483–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Watt RG, Heilmann A, Sabbah W, et al. Social relationships and health related behaviors among older US adults. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:533.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Robards J, Evandrou M, Falkingham J, Vlachantoni A. Marital status, health and mortality. Maturitas. 2012;73(4):295–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Moser DK, McKinley S, Dracup K, Chung ML. Gender differences in reasons patients delay in seeking treatment for acute myocardial infarction symptoms. Patient Educ Couns. 2005;56(1):45–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, et al. Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):e0138511.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Krieger N, Kosheleva A, Waterman PD, Chen JT, Koenen K. Racial discrimination, psychological distress, and self-rated health among US-born and foreign-born black Americans. Am J Public Health. 2011;101(9):1704–13.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Chae DH, Nuru-Jeter AM, Adler NE, et al. Discrimination, racial bias, and telomere length in African-American men. Am J Prev Med. 2014;46(2):103–11.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Alzheimer's disease in African Americans: risk factors and challenges for the future. Health Aff. 2014;33(4):580–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Barnes LLL S, Aggarwal NT, Shah RC, Arvanitakis Z, James BD, Buchman AS, Bennett DA, Schneider JA. Mixed pathology is more likely in black than white decedents with Alzheimer dementia. Neurology. 2015;85:528–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Carson AP, Tanner RM, Yun H, et al. Declines in coronary heart disease incidence and mortality among middle-aged adults with and without diabetes. Ann Epidemiol. 2014;24(8):581–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Krumholz HM, Normand SL, Wang Y. Trends in hospitalizations and outcomes for acute cardiovascular disease and stroke, 1999-2011. Circulation. 2014;130(12):966–75.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Rosamond WD, Chambless LE, Heiss G, et al. Twenty-two-year trends in incidence of myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease mortality, and case fatality in 4 US communities, 1987-2008. Circulation. 2012;125(15):1848–57.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Forsyth CJ, Pathak EB, Strom JA. De Facto regionalization of care for ST-elevation myocardial infarction in Florida, 2001-2009. Am Heart J. 2012;164(5):681–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Pathak EB, Strom JA. Percutaneous coronary intervention, comorbidities, and mortality among emergency department-admitted ST-elevation myocardial infarction patients in Florida. J Interv Cardiol. 2010;23(3):205–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Ford ES, Li C, Zhao G, Pearson WS, Capewell S. Trends in the prevalence of low risk factor burden for cardiovascular disease in the United States. Circulation. 2009;120:1181–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Mensah GA, Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Greenlund KJ, Croft JB. State of disparities in cardiovascular health in the United States. Circulation. 2005;111(10):1233–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. DeSantis CN D, Jamal A. Cancer statistics for African Americans, 2013. CA Cancer J Clin. 2013;63:151–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Kohler BA, Sherman RL, Howlader N, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2011, featuring incidence of breast cancer subtypes by race/ethnicity, poverty, and state. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015;107(6):djv048.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Sakuma K-LK, Felicitas J, Fagan P, et al. Smoking trends and disparities among black and non-Hispanic whites in California. Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 2015;17(12):1491–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988-2008. JAMA. 2010;303(20):2043–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Olives C, Myerson R, Mokdad AH, Murray CJL, Lim SS. Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in United States counties, 2001-2009. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e60308.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Lackland DT, Roccella EJ, Deutsch AF, et al. Factors influencing the decline in stroke mortality: a statement from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2014;45(1):315–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Pathak EB, Sloan MA. Recent racial/ethnic disparities in stroke hospitalizations and outcomes for young adults in Florida, 2001-2006. Neuroepidemiology. 2009;32(4):302–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Menke A, Casagrande S, Geiss L, Cowie CC. Prevalence of and trends in diabetes among adults in the United States, 1988-2012. JAMA. 2015;314(10):1021–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Tilert T, Paulose-Ram R, Brody DJ. Lung obstruction among adults aged 40-79: United States 2007-2012. NCHS Data Brief. 2015;180:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Postma DS, Bush A, van den Berge M. Risk factors and early origins of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Lancet. 2015;385:899–909.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hsu CY, Iribarren C, McCulloch CE, Darbinian J, Go AS. Risk factors for end-stage renal disease: 25-year follow-up. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169(4):342–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Grams ME, Chow EKH, Segev DL, Coresh J. Lifetime incidence of CKD stages 3-5 in the United States. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 2013;62(2):245–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Peralta CA, Vittinghoff E, Bansal N, et al. Trajectories of kidney function decline in young black and white adults with preserved GFR: results from the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013;62(2):261–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Navaneethan SD, Singh S. A systematic review of barriers to renal transplantation among African Americans in the United States. Clin Transpl. 2006;20:769–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Yan G, Cheung AK, Ma JZ, et al. The associations between race and geographic area and quality-of-care indicators in patients approaching ESRD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2013;8(4):610–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Prakash S, Rodriguez RA, Austin PC, et al. Racial composition of residential areas associates with access to pre-ESRD nephrology care. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21(7):1192–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN, Brzezinski WA, Ferdinand KC. Uncontrolled and apparent treatment resistant hypertension in the United States, 1988 to 2008. Circulation. 2011;124(9):1046–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Keyes KM, Vo T, Wall MM, Caetano R, Suglia SF, Martins SS, Galea S, Hasin D. Racial/ethnic differences in use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana: is there a cross-over from adolescence to adulthood? Soc Sci Med. 2015;124:132–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Matthews DD, Herrick AL, Coulter RWS, et al. Running Backwards: Consequences of Current HIV Incidence Rates for the Next Generation of Black MSM in the United States. AIDS Behav. 2015.

  71. Barnato AE, Alexander SL, Linde-Zwirble WT, Angus DC. Racial variation in the incidence, care, and outcomes of severe sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:279–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Mayr FB, Yende S, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. Infection rate and acute organ dysfunction risk as explanations for racial differences in severe sepsis. JAMA. 2010;303(24):2495–503.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Yende S, Alvarez K, Loehr L, et al. Epidemiology and long-term clinical and biologic risk factors for pneumonia in community-dwelling older Americans. Chest. 2013;144(3):1008–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Lu PJ, O'Halloran A, Williams WW, Lindley MC, Farrall S, Bridges CB. Racial and ethnic disparities in vaccination coverage among adult populations in the U.S. Vaccine. 2015;33:D83–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Cai S, Feng Z, Fennell ML, Mor V. Despite small improvement, black nursing home residents remain less likely than whites to receive flu vaccine. Health Aff. 2011;30(10):1939–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Bardenheier B, Wortley P, Shefer A, McCauley MM, Gravenstein S. Racial inequities in receipt of influenza vaccination among nursing home residents in the United States, 2008-2009: a pattern of low overall coverage in facilities in which most residents are black. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2012;13(2012):470–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Hedegaard H, Chen LH, Warner M. Drug-poisoning deaths involving heroin: United States 2000-2013. NCHS Data Brief. 2015;190:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Sonderman JS, Munro HM, Blot WJ, Tarone RE, McLaughlin JK. Suicides, homicides, accidents, and other external causes of death among blacks and whites in the southern community cohort study. PLoS One. 2014;9(12):e114852.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Smith JR. Unequal burdens of loss: examining the frequency and timing of homicide deaths experienced by young black men across the life course. Am J Public Health. 2015;105(Suppl 3):S483–90.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. LaVeist TA, Thorpe RJ, Pierre G, Mance GA, Williams DR. The relationships among vigilant coping style, race, and depression. J Soc Issues. 2014;70(2):241–55.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Breslau J, Aguilar-Gaxioloa S, Kendler KS, Su M, Williams D, Kessler RC. Specifying race-ethnic differences in risk for psychiatric disorder in a US national sample. Psychol Med. 2006;36(1):57–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Scott SM, Wallander JL, Cameron L. Protective mechanisms for depression among racial/ethnic minority youth: empirical findings, issues, and recommendations. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2015;18:346–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Wang MC, Lightsey OR, Tran KK, Bonaparte TS. Examining suicide protective factors among black college students. Death Stud. 2013;37(3):228–47.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Williams DR. The health of men: structured inequalities and opportunities. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(5):724–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Williams DR. Miles to go before we sleep: racial inequities in health. J Health Soc Behav. 2012;53(3):279–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. Barnett E, Anderson T, Blosnich J, Halverson J, Novak J. Promoting cardiovascular health—from individual goals to social environmental change. Am J Prev Med. 2005;29(5):107–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Keyes CL. The black-white paradox in health: flourishing in the face of social inequality and discrimination. J Pers. 2009;77(6):1677–16706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Lawson EJ, Thomas C. Wading in the waters: spirituality and older black Katrina survivors. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2007;18(2):341–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Namageyo-Funa A, Muilenburg J, Wilson M. The role of religion and spirituality in coping with type 2 diabetes: a qualitative study among black men. J Relig Health. 2015;54(1):242–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Foster ML, Arnold E, Rebchook G, Kegeles SM. It's my inner strength': spirituality, religion and HIV in the lives of young African American men who have sex with men. Cult Health Sex. 2011;13(9):1103–17.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Williams JL, Aiyer SM, Durkee MI, Tolan PH. The protective role of ethnic identity for urban adolescent males facing multiple stressors. J Youth Adolesc. 2014;43(10):1728–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Butler-Barnes ST, Williams TT, Chavous TM. Racial pride and religiosity among African American boys: implications for academic motivation and achievement. J Youth Adolesc. 2012;41(4):486–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Fernander AF, Patten CA, Schroeder DR, Stevens SR, Eberman KM, Hurt RD. Exploring the association of John Henry active coping and education on smoking behavior and nicotine dependence among blacks in the USA. Soc Sci Med. 2005;60(3):491–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Brondolo E. Racial and ethnic disparities in health: examining the contexts that shape resilience and risk. Psychosom Med. 2015;77(7):2–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Brown DL. African American resiliency: examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology. 2008;34(1):32–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Gage GS. Social Support and Positive Health Practices in Black Late Adolescents: The Role of Mediating Variables. Clin Nurs Res. 2015.

  97. Teti M, Martin AE, Ranade R, et al. "I'm a keep rising. I'm a keep going forward, regardless": exploring black men's resilience amid sociostructural challenges and stressors. Qual Health Res. 2012;22(4):524–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Hooker SP, Wilcox S, Burroughs EL, Rheaume CE, Courtenay W. The potential influence of masculine identity on health-improving behavior in midlife and older African American men. J Mens Health. 2012;9(2):79–88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  99. Cooper R, Steinhauer M, Schatzkin A, Miller W. Improved mortality among U.S. blacks, 1968-1978: the role of antiracist struggle. Int J Health Serv. 1981;11(4):511–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was conducted solely by the author who thanks the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful suggestions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA

    Elizabeth B. Pathak

Authors
  1. Elizabeth B. Pathak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth B. Pathak.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This study was unfunded.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that she has no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants.

Electronic Supplementary Material

.

Supplemental Table 1

ICD-10 Cause of Death Codes for the 15 Leading Causes of Death for Black Men in 2014 (DOCX 12.5 kb)

.

Supplemental Table 2

All-Cause Mortality Rates (2014) and Average Annual Percent Change (2000–2014) for Statesa, Black Males 15+ Years Old, United States (DOCX 19 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pathak, E.B. Mortality Among Black Men in the USA. J. Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 5, 50–61 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-017-0341-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-017-0341-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation