Systematic review of whether nurse practitioners working in primary care can provide equivalent care to doctors
BMJ 2002; 324 doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7341.819 (Published 06 April 2002) Cite this as: BMJ 2002;324:819
Data supplement
Observational studies included in review
Methodological quality of randomised controlled trials
Methodological quality of observational studies
Health status and health related quality of life
Quality of care in randomised controlled trials
Table A Randomised controlled trials included in review (9 were in general practice setting)
Reference Patient sample (setting and No of patients) Setting (No of sites) No of nurse practitioners (qualification level)* and No of doctors Main outcomes Comment Sackett et al 1974W1Spitzer et al 1974W2 Family practice: nurse practitioners, 540 families, 1529 people; doctors 1058 families, 2796 people. Subsample for patient satisfaction and health status interviews: nurse practitioners 296; doctors 521 Family practice (1) 2 Nurse practitioners (2); 2 doctors Health status; deaths; patient satisfaction; quality of care; cost effectiveness Power calculation not reported. Families were randomly allocated but had the option to swap groups (2 from doctor group and 5 from nurse practitioner group swapped.) Only 67% of patients managed entirely by nurse practitioners as nurses needed to refer to physicians for advice for a third of patients. Care over time study Hoekelman 1975W3 Well baby care: nurse practitioners 103; doctors 143 Paediatric clinic; private paediatric practice (2) 23 Paediatric nurse practitioners (2); 4 doctors Service use; maternal knowledge; maternal compliance; abnormality detection rate Power calculation not reported. Study complicated by comparing nurse practitioners across clinic and private practice settings. Care over time study Burnip et al 1976W4 Well child care: nurse practitioners 474; doctors 678 Medical centres (2) 6 Paediatric nurse practitioners (3); doctors not reported Prescriptions; investigations; health service costs; service use Power calculation not reported. 15.7% of mothers seeing nurse practitioners wanted to change provider. Care over time study Chambers and West 1978W5 Family practice: nurse practitioners 296; doctors 572 Family practice (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (2); 1 doctors Patient health status: physical, emotional, and social function Power calculation not reported. High (37%) unexplained dropout rate and big difference between groups. Care over time study Winter 1981W6 Primary care: nurse practitioners 25; doctors 25 Primary care clinic (1) 5 Nurse practitioners (2); 5 doctors Patient satisfaction with quality of care Power calculation not reported. MSc thesis. Small study. Sample: high ratio females to male providers, and preferences expressed could have been due to sex of providers Cooper 2001W7 Patients with minor injuries: nurse practitioners 102; doctors 102 Emergency department (1) Nurse practitioners (4) not reported; doctors not reported Patient satisfaction; length of consultation; No of radiographs; internal referrals; unplanned return visits; quality of care Unpublished report: pilot study for proposed randomised controlled trial¾ study too small to detect real differences Sakr et al 1999W8 Patients with recent traumatic injury: nurse practitioners 704; doctors 749 Emergency department (1) Nurse practitioners (3) not reported; doctors not reported Patient satisfaction; adequacy of care Use of 2 research registrars could have increased variation between them, such as whether radiography was needed Kinnersley et al 2000W9 Patients requesting same day appointments: nurse practitioners 652; doctors 716 General practices (10) 10 Nurse practitioners (2); doctors not reported Patient satisfaction; resolution of symptoms and concerns at 2 weeks; length of consultation; prescriptions; investigations; referrals; return consultations; costs Possible selection bias. High refusal rate¾ 216 (12.3%) people refused to participate Mundinger et al 2000W10 Patients requiring primary care after emergency department visit: nurse practitioners 806; doctors 510 Primary care (5) 7 Nurse practitioners (1); 17 doctors Patient satisfaction; health status; physiological measurements; healthcare utilisation Study may be too small to detect differences for sicker patients. Recruitment bias: only 58% of those screened were recruited, and high attrition as 32.4 % randomised participants did not attend their first appointment, and those who stayed in study differed significantly at baseline. Care over time study Shum et al 2000W11 Patients requesting same day appointments: nurse practitioners 900; doctors 915 General practices (5) 5 Nurse practitioners (3) 19 doctors Patient satisfaction; health status; prescriptions; length of consultation; referrals to doctor; admissions; quality of care measures Study did not have enough power to detect differences in rare outcomes. Some ambiguity about inclusion¾ nurses not described as nurse practitioners but given this type of training to assess and manage patients autonomously Venning et al 2000W12 Patients requesting same day appointments: nurse practitioners 651; doctors 665 General practices (20) 20 Nurse practitioners:(1 and 2); doctors not reported Length of consultation; prescriptions; investigations; referrals; return consultations; patient satisfaction; health status; costs No prior power calculation for costs. Not clear how many patients could not attend experimental sessions *(1)=Recognised nurse practitioner programme in higher education institution leading to qualification at degree level or above; (2)=extended training in higher education institution, relevant to practice as nurse practitioner, leading to award that is less than degree level; (3)=extended training outside higher education institution relevant to enhanced practice as nurse practitioner; (4)=not possible to assign qualification.
Table B Observational studies included in review (17 were in general practice setting)
Study reference Patient sample (setting and No of patients) Setting (No of sites)
No of nurse practitioners* (qualification level) and doctors Main outcomes Comment Richards and de Castro 1973W13 Children attending emergency room follow up clinic for primary care (66 nurse practitioners; 47 doctors) Primary care (1) 3 Nurse practitioners (4); 1 doctor Patient satisfaction with communication; quality of care Small study. Only one physician¾ female (sex probably significant in assessing communication) Russo et al 1975W14 113 children attending paediatric primary care outpatients (113 nurse practitioners; 113 doctors) Primary care (1) 6 Nurse practitioners (3); 6 doctors Quality of care Small study. Patients were assessed by both providers and where researcher thought parents’ report was influenced by previous examination the patient was excluded; numbers not reported Linn 1976W15 Patients attending ambulatory care settings (273 nurse practitioners; 957doctors) Primary care (10) 10 Nurse practitioners (2); doctors not reported Patient satisfaction No discussion of sampling or analysis. Some patients in conventional care group seen only by nurses Komaroff et al 1976W16 Ambulatory care patients with upper respiratory tract infections, genitourinary symptoms (73 nurse practitioners; 47doctors) Ambulatory care (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (2); 1 doctor Patient satisfaction; resolution of symptoms; length of consultation; internal referrals; costs Likelihood of selection bias. Small sample size and power calculation not reported De Angelis and McHugh 1977W17 Children attending acute paediatric clinic (245 nurse practitioners; 211 doctors) Primary care (1) 3 Nurse practitioners (3); 3 doctors Quality of care; cost effectiveness Power calculation not reported. Costs not fully reported Goodman and Perrin 1978W18 5 scenarios of mother concerned about her child’s health presented to nurse practitioners and paediatricians (19 nurse practitioners; 69 doctors) Primary care: evening phone calls (1) 5 Nurse practitioners (1 and 2); 23 doctors Quality of care; maternal satisfaction; length of calls Not clear if assessors blind. Small sample of nurse practitioner calls. Higher scores in interviewing skills correlated with higher satisfaction and longer length of call Graham 1978W19 Children presenting with new episodes of sore throat (138 nurse practitioners; 136 doctors) Primary care (1) 2 Nurse practitioners (3); 3 doctors Patient or parent satisfaction; quality of care indicators; investigations Hastings et al 1980W20 Patients who were prison inmates (176 nurse practitioners; 136 doctors) Prison clinic (3) 6 Nurse practitioners (3); doctors not reported Workload; quality of care; health status; patient satisfaction; mortality; test result compared to work performance of nurse practitioners; costs; return consultations Care over time study Salkever et al 1982W21 Episodes of otitis media and sore throat treated by physicians and nurse practitioners (438 nurse practitioners; 361doctors) Primary care (1) 4 Nurse practitioners (4); 4 doctors Costs; investigations; internal referrals; consultation times; return consultations; prescriptions Complex study involving analysis of patient encounters supplemented by small observational study to record consultation times Powers et al 1984W22 Patients attending emergency room (31 nurse practitioners; 31doctors) Emergency department (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (1); 20 doctors Patient knowledge satisfaction; compliance; resolution of problems; quality of care Small sample size, multiple outcomes, some differences likely to be due to chance Dunn and Higgins 1986W23 Isolated North American Indian communities requiring health care (98 338 nurse practitioners; 14 935 doctors) Primary care (27) Nurse practitioners (4) not reported; doctors not reported Range of health problems encountered; diagnostic and management patterns; prescriptions Differences probably related to types of patients and differences in diagnostic tendencies. Isolated communities, but in developed country: ambiguity about inclusion. Little relevance to United Kingdom. Care over time study Salisbury and Tettersell 1988W24 Patients attending general practice (210 nurse practitioners; 836 doctors) General practice (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (3) 1; 1 doctor Patient satisfaction; prescriptions; referrals; presenting problems and activities of nurse practitioners No comparative data for patient satisfaction Campbell et al 1990W25 Patients attending a family practice (136 nurse practitioners; 276 doctors) Primary care (60) Nurse practitioners (2) not reported; doctors not reported Quality of care: provider style of delivering health care Results may be confounded by sex and case mix of sample Rhee and Dermyer 1995W26 Patients attending university emergency department (30 nurse practitioners; 30 doctors) Emergency department (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (1); doctors not reported Patient satisfaction Ambiguity over control group, unspecified number of medical students included. Strong socioeconomic selection bias as telephone survey, unable to reach 40% of prospective sample Freij et al 1996W27 Patients attending with minor injuries, injuries distal to knee and elbow (150 nurse practitioners; 150 doctors) Emergency department and minor injury unit (2) 6 Nurse practitioners (3); doctors not reported Quality of care: number of appropriate requests for radiography, number of correct interpretations of radiographs Compared senior house officers and nurse practitioners by expert review of records (records selected at two monthly intervals). Study in two different settings Myers et al 1997W28 Patients requesting urgent appointments for medical problems (500 nurse practitioners; 500 doctors) General practice (1)
1 Nurse practitioners (1); doctors not reported Prescriptions; referrals; admissions; return consultations Patients self selected care, some outcomes stated were not reported (misdiagnoses and dysfunctional consultations), differences in morbidity between two groups Bond et al 1998W29 (EROS 2)
General practice patients (305 nurse practitioners 343 doctors) General practice (4) 4 Nurse practitioners (3); 28 doctors Patient views of service; return consultations Variability across sites Jones et al 1998W30 Simulated patients requesting primary care (9 nurse practitioners; 9 doctors) Primary care (6) 3 Nurse practitioners (4); 3 doctors Frequency of asking about urinary incontinence Small study. Sex bias of providers. 26% of providers realised they were seeing a simulated patient Meek et al 1998W31 20 radiographs of distal limbs for interpretation by senior house officer and nurse practitioners Emergency department (13) 58 Nurse practitioners (4); 84 doctors Quality of care: correct interpretation of radiographs Comparatively few films. Not reported whether assessor was blind Overton Brown and Anthony 1998W32 50 radiographs and case histories to be interpreted and compared with consultant radiologist gold standard Emergency department (1) 7 Nurse practitioners (3); 14 doctors Quality of care: accuracy of interpretation of distal radiographs Uses receiver operating characteristic method. This analysis gives graphic representation of whole spectrum of sensitivity and specificity decisions Reveley 1998W33 Patients attending for same day appointments (113 nurse practitioners; 173 doctors) General practice (1) 1 Nurse practitioner (1); 7 doctors Patient perceptions; length of consultations; prescriptions; referrals Pilot study. Differences in organisation of care between providers. Interviews non-blind, subjective, fewer doctor than nurse practitioner patients, no formal assessment of satisfaction, based on convenience sample. Confounding sex bias Byrne et al 2000W34 Patients with minor injuries (57 nurse practitioners; 57 doctors) Emergency department, minor accident treatment centre (2) Nurse practitioners (4) not reported; doctors not reported Patient satisfaction Three different settings compared. Results for the two most similar settings (emergency department and minor injury department attached to an emergency department) have been included. Doctors data gathered in June and July but nurse practitioners gathered in September to January Cox and Jones2000W35 Patients attending practice with sore throat (188 nurse practitioners; 247 doctors) General practice (1) Nurse practitioners (3) not reported; doctors not reported Patient satisfaction; resolution of symptoms at 5 days; follow up at 1 month of patients with unresolved symptoms; use of analgesia; return consultation rates; prescriptions Patients self selected provider. Nurse practitioners saw younger and probably less ill patients. Follow up by unblinded researcher *(1)=Recognised nurse practitioner programme in higher education institution leading to qualification at degree level or above; (2)=extended training in higher education institution, relevant to practice as nurse practitioner, leading to award that is less than degree level; (3)=extended training outside higher education institution relevant to enhanced practice as nurse practitioner; (4)=not possible to assign qualification.
Table C Methodological quality of randomised controlled trials
Reference Allocation concealment Follow up for 80% of participants in doctor and nurse practitioner arms Blind assessment of outcomes, or objective measures Outcomes assessed at baseline Reliable outcome measures Allocation by practice or site to protect against contamination Sackett et al 1974W1 ? Done Done Done Done Not done Hoekelman 1975W3 ? Not done Done Not done Done Not done Burnip et al 1976W4 ? Done ? Not done ? Not done Chambers et al 1978W5 ? Not done Done Done Done Not done Winter 1981W6 ? Not done Done Not done Not done Not done Cooper 2001W7 Done Not done Done Not done Done Not done Sakr et al 1999W8 Done Not done Done Not done Done Not done Shum et al 2000W11 Done Not done Done Not done Done Not done Venning et al 2000W12 Done Not done Done Done Done Not done Kinnersley et al 2000W9 Done Not done Done Done Done Not done Mundinger et al 2000W10 ? Not done Done Done Done Done ?=Unclear or some measures only.
Table D Methodological quality of observational studies
Reference Baseline characteristics reported and similar Follow up for 80% of participants in doctor and nurse practitioner arms Blind assessment of outcomes, or objective measures Outcomes assessed at baseline Reliable outcome measures Allocation by practice or site to protect against contamination Richards and de Castro 1973W13 Done Not applicable ? Not done Not done Not done Russo et al 1975W14 Done Not applicable ? Not done Not done Not done Komaroff et al 1976W16 Done Done ? Not done Not done Not done Linn 1976W15 Not done ? ? Not done Not done Not done De Angelis and McHugh 1977W17 Done Not applicable ? Not done Not done Not done Goodman and Perrin 1978W18 Done Not applicable Done Not applicable ? Not done Graham 1978W19 Done Not done ? Not done ? Not done Hastings et al 1980W20 ? Done Done ? Not done Not done Salkever et al 1982W21 Done Not applicable Done Not done Done Not done Powers et al 1984W22 Done Done ? Not done Not done Not done Dunn and Higgins 1986W23 Not applicable Not applicable ? Not done Not done Not done Salisbury and Tettersell 1988W24 Done Done ? Not applicable Not done Not done Campbell et al 1990W25 Done Not applicable Done Not applicable Not done ? Rhee and Dermyer 1995W26 Done Not applicable Done Not done Not done Not done Freij et al 1996W27 ? Not done Done Not applicable ? Not done Myers et al 1997W28 Done Done ? Not done ? Not done Jones and Bunner 1998W30 Not done Not applicable Done Not applicable Not done Not done Meek et al 1998W31 Not done Not applicable Done Not applicable ? Not done Bond et al 1998W29 (EROS 2) Done Not done Not done Not done Not done Not done Overton-Brown and Anthony 1998W32 Done Not applicable Done Not applicable ? Not done Reveley 1998W33 Done ? ? Not done Not done Not done Byrne et al 2000W34 Not done Not done Done Not done Done Not done Cox and Jones 2000W35 Done Done ? Not done ? Not done ?=Unclear or some measures only.
Table E Health status and health related quality of life (randomised controlled trials)
Reference Measure used Results Conclusion Comment Sackett et al 1974W1(reports Spitzer et al 1974W2) Measures of physical function adapted from previous instruments*; health index* used for measures of emotional and social function Unimpaired mobility, vision, hearing: nurse practitioners 255/296 (86%), doctors 458/521 (88%). Able to undertake daily activities: nurse practitioners 266/296 (90%), doctors 469/521 (90%). Freedom from bed days: nurse practitioners 255/296 (86%), doctors 453/521 (87%). Emotional function indices (1=good): nurse practitioners mean 0.583 (SD 0.187), doctors mean 0.577 (SD 0.187). Social function indices: nurse practitioners mean 0.832 (SD 0.249), doctors mean 0.839 (SD 0.274). Deaths (rate per 1000): nurse practitioners 4 (2.7), doctors 18 (6.0) Health status measurements equivalent in both groups. Physical function compared with baseline data Power calculation not reported. Only 67% of patients received their care exclusively from nurse practitioners; of deaths reported none of patients seeing nurse practitioners were preventable Chambers and West 1978W5 WHO/ICS MCU*: health index* used for measures of emotional and social functioning Patients classified as "healthy" (χ2 P<0.01): nurse practitioners, 181/296 (61%), doctors: 284/569 (50%). Emotional function indices: nurse practitioners comparable to doctors (χ2 P<0.01). Social function indices: nurse practitioners comparable to doctors (χ2 P<0.01) Both groups of patients had similar outcomes; nurse group had better physical function Power calculation not reported. Only one of each practitioner. Multiple outcomes Sakr et al 1999W8 Satisfaction questionnaire incorporating health status measures* Reported improved health: nurse practitioners, 373/409 (91.1%), doctors: 421/469 (89.8). Not improved as expected (P=0.41): nurse practitioners, 36/409 (8.8%), doctors: 48/469 (10.2%). Not returned to normal activities (P=0.45): nurse practitioners:74/424 (17.5%), doctors: 76/488 (15.6%) No significant difference between groups Power calculation not reported Kinnersley et al 2000W9 Satisfaction questionnaire (CSQ) incorporating health status measures Resolution of symptoms: nurse practitioners 401/484 (82.8%), doctors 450/529 (85.1%). Resolution of concerns: nurse practitioners 221/484 (45.7%), doctors 233/529 (44.0%) No significant differences between groups Prior power calculation Mundinger et al 2000W10 Short form SF-36* Physical summary (P=0.92): nurse practitioners mean 40.83 (SD 11.58), doctors mean 40.29 (SD 11.42). Mental summary (P=0.92): nurse practitioners mean 44.64 (SD 13.75), doctors mean 44.29 (SD 13.58). Physiological measures: no differences in physiological status for asthma (P=0.77) and diabetes patients (P=0.82). Slight difference in diastolic blood pressure 82 v 85 mm Hg (P=0.04) No significant differences in health outcomes at six months follow up. Difference in hypertension measurements only marginally of significance Prior power calculation Shum et al 2000W11 Satisfaction questionnaire (CSQ) incorporating health status measures Patients rate condition cured or improved (P=0.906): nurse practitioners 558/672 (83%), doctors 546/661 (82.6%) Health outcomes not significantly different between practitioners Prior power calculation. Nurses had longer consultation times Venning et al 2000W12 SF-36* Physical functioning (P=0.48): nurse practitioners mean 80.78 (SD 25.11), doctors mean 82.09 (SD 24.74) No significant differences between the groups pre or post consultation in any dimension Power calculation not reported *Validated or referenced in paper as previously tested measure.
Table F Quality of care in randomised controlled trials
Reference Measure Results Conclusion Comment Spitzer et al 1974W2 Management of 10 indicator conditions. Use of 13 common drugs Adequate management: nurse practitioner 115/167 (69%), doctor 148/225 (66%). Adequate drug prescription: nurse practitioner 160/226 (71%), doctor 213/284 (75%) No significant differences in quality of care between nurse practitioners and doctors Power calculation not reported. Uncertain validity of measures Hoekelman 1975W3 Physical examination of study children at age 15months by paediatrician Abnormalities undetected: nurse practitioner 6/103 (5.8%), doctor 21/143 (14.7%) Nurse practitioners missed fewer abnormalities Power calculation not reported. Assessor was not blinded to provider. Different settings Cooper 2001W7 Clinic referral forms completed by the reviewing doctor. Patient satisfaction questionnaire. Audit of 10% sample of notes (max score 30) Appropriate referrals (P=0.5): nurse practitioner 31/34 (91.2%), doctor 27/28 (96.4%). Satisfactory management (P=0.25): nurse practitioner 36/38 (94.7%), doctor 28/28 (100). Patient understood advice (P=0.08): nurse practitioner 79.9/85 (94.1%), doctor 65.9/78 (84.6%). Mean satisfaction scores (P=0.06): nurse practitioner (n=11) 26.45, doctor (n=9) 24.52. No missed injury: nurse practitioner 101/102 (99%), doctor 101/102 (99%) Significant differences between nurse practitioners and doctors in patients’ understanding of advice. Nurse practitioners had a higher average score on a quality audit of notes Study too small to have detected significant differences in outcome of missed injury rates. In two cases nurse practitioners were considered to have mismanaged patients. Assessor may not have been blinded to provider. Audit of notes by researcher but measure had been tested (r=0.68, P<0.01). Study took place during last 2 months of senior house officer rotation therefore comparatively experienced Sakr et al 1999W8 A standardised record was assessed to check adequacy of care on items regarded as important in quality of care, compared to research registrar and emergency consultant No important errors: nurse practitioner 639/704 (90.8%), doctor 745/749 (99.4%). Mechanism of injury: nurse practitioner 703/704 (99.8%); doctor 669/749 (89.3%). Accurate medical history recorded: nurse practitioner 533/704 (76%), doctor 410/749 (55%). Clinically important recording error (P=0.01): nurse practitioner 1/704 (0.15%), doctor 11/749 (1.5%). Examination: nurse practitioner 678/704 (96.3%), doctor 729/749 (97.3%). Treatment or advice: nurse practitioner 673/704 (95.6%), doctor 705/749 (94.1%). Radiograph interpretation: nurse practitioner 428/440 (97.2%), doctor 457/473 (96.6%). Follow up: nurse practitioner 684/704 (97.2%), doctor 714/749 (95.3%) Nurse practitioner care was equivalent to doctors and better in accurate recording of the medical history and interpretation of radiographs Kinnersley et al 2000W9 Patient satisfaction questionnaire (CSQ) with additional items regarding understanding of care given by provider Cause of illness: odds ratio 0.58 (95% confidence interval, 0.44 to 0.76); nurse practitioner 501/652 (81%), doctor 491/716 (72%). Relief of symptoms: 0.32 (0.24 to 0.43); nurse practitioner 548/652 (86%), doctor 467/716 (68%). Act if problem persists: 0.61 (0.41 to 0.90); nurse practitioner 584/652 (93%), doctor 604/716 (88%). How to reduce recurrence: 0.19 (0.09 to 0.38) to 1.57 (0.46 to 5.23) (range reported because odds ratios varied significantly across practices ) nurse practitioner 205/652 (34%), doctor 139/716 (21%). Patient given advice about self medication (χ2=21.123, P<0.001); nurse practitioner 193/868 (22.2%), doctor 119/871 (13.7%) Patients of nurse practitioners received more information about prevention, cause, relief of symptoms, and what to do if the problem persisted than did those of doctors Only similar, small numbers of patients in both groups would self manage in future. Authors suggest this might be due to prescriptions validating the decision to go to see general practitioner Shum et al 2000W11 Doctor and nurse practitioner report of healthcare behaviour Patient given advice about general self management (χ2=117.766, P<0.001); nurse practitioner 709/868 (81.7%), doctor 502/871 (57.6) Patients of nurse practitioners were given more information on self management and self medication Not validated measure
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- Economic evaluation of nurse practitioners versus GPs in treating common conditions
- Collaboration
- Effectiveness of nurse-delivered cardiovascular risk management in primary care: a randomised trial
- Low-Income Parents' Views on the Redesign of Well-Child Care
- Managing Chronic Disease in Ontario Primary Care: The Impact of Organizational Factors
- Nurse practitioners
- Primary health care in a changing world
- Should primary care be nurse led? Yes
- Should primary care be nurse led? No
- Abortion in Turkey: women in rural areas and the law
- Prescribing for older people
- Quality of Diabetes Care in Family Medicine Practices: Influence of Nurse-Practitioners and Physician's Assistants
- Comparing the cost of nurse practitioners and GPs in primary care: modelling economic data from randomised trials
- The evolution of the emergency care practitioner role in England: experiences and impact.
- Determinants of primary medical care quality measured under the new UK contract: cross sectional study
- Comparison of GP and nurse practitioner consultations: an observational study
- Cardiology
- Impact of nurse practitioners on workload of general practitioners: randomised controlled trial
- Future of primary healthcare education: current problems and potential solutions
- Nurse-Based Management in Patients With Gestational Diabetes
- Impact of NHS walk-in centres on the workload of other local healthcare providers: time series analysis
- Emergency nurse practitioners: a three part study in clinical and cost effectiveness
- Retaining nurses in the NHS
- Review: nurse practitioner primary care improves patient satisfaction and quality of care with no difference in health outcomes
- Do nurses do it better?
- Can nurse practitioners provide equivalent care to GPs?
- How Do Nurse Practitioners Compare with Primary Care Doctors?
- Patients Are More Satisfied with Primary Care from NPs Than Physicians
- How Do Nurse Practitioners Compare with Primary Care Doctors?
- The Wanless report: engaging the NHS with patient needs?