Rapid Responses to:
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Rapid Responses: Rapid Responses published:
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Books to Iraq
- Anthony R Cox (24 December 2005)
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How Islam Changed Medicine?
- Visahan Yogendran (26 December 2005)
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Ibn al-Haytham and Optics
- Mohammad T Masoud, Faiza Masoud (26 December 2005)
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~The Decline of Islamic Medicine~
- Sarkar Haider (26 December 2005)
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Further on Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
- John Urquhart, none (28 December 2005)
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Wise Men from the East
- Joan M. Dugdale (28 December 2005)
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Lack of pluralism
- Shehnaaz Jivraj (28 December 2005)
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Re: How Islam Changed Medicine?
- Mohammad T Masoud (29 December 2005)
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Knowledge against Barbarism
- Luis A. Castro (29 December 2005)
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The True Origin of Pre-Renaissance Scientists
- Parivash Nourjah, Kamyar Kalantar_zadeh (30 December 2005)
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Muslim contribution
- Shahid Islam (1 January 2006)
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Al-Nafis, Servetus and Colombo
- Giles N Cattermole (1 January 2006)
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Re: Muslim contribution
- Reza Rostamnia (2 January 2006)
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The Sanskrit writings translated in Islamic Medicine ?
- Usha K. Sharma (2 January 2006)
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Denying India its rightful dues by claiming Islamic contribution
- Dr. Sucharita A. Nanivadekar (4 January 2006)
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Politics in Medicine
- Ahmad Reza Rasekhi (4 January 2006)
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Author's Response
- Azeem Majeed (4 January 2006)
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Read history without prejudice
- Mohammad A. Al-Jubouri (4 January 2006)
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The Role of Iranian Physicians in Islamic Medicine
- Sepideh Omidvari (6 January 2006)
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Islam has not changed Medicine in any way
- Ikechukwu O. Azuonye (8 January 2006)
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Al-Quanon is not the canon
- Salah Abdelmonem (13 January 2006)
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Re: Islam has not changed Medicine in any way
- Husain Yahya (16 January 2006)
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Islam's contribution to medicine
- Salman Ali Khan, 46000 (16 January 2006)
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Medicine and Medical Ethics in Islamic Empire
- Farzaneh Zahedi, Bagher Larijani, MD; Prof. of Endocrinology, Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Centre, and Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (7 August 2006)
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Anthony R Cox, Pharmacist City Hospital NHS Trust
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A group of Iraqi and UK pharmacists are attempting to replenish Iraq with academic textbooks:You can help Iraqis rebuild their country, by returning the favour they gave the world. Competing interests: Committee member of Books to Iraq |
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Visahan Yogendran, Consultant Surgeon. Sri Lanka.
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What is the purpose of publisihing this article? I agree with the professor on the history of medicine in relation to Islam. Boring topic. Could the professor write an article on how present radical changes in islam is changing medicine. Practical and useful topic. Topics like these will bring back the medical students to lecture rooms. Competing interests: None declared |
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Mohammad T Masoud, Senior House Officer, Ophthalmology Stirling Royal Infirmary, Stirling. UK. FK8 1LU, Faiza Masoud
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It was a pleasure to read Professor Majeed’s article on the role of Muslim physicians and scholars in modern medicine. He has elaborated very well the contributions of various Arab physicians during the middle ages. I would like to make an addition here. Being an ophthalmologist, I have always been amazed by the works of Ibn al-Haytham (known to the West as Alhacen or Alhazen), 965 – c.1040. He was a distinguished mathematician, astronomer and philosopher of his times, who became known in Europe as the author of a monumental book on optics, Kitab al-Manazir (translated into Latin as De Perspectiva or De Aspectibus[1] and partly translated into English as The Optics[2]. Ibnal-Haytham described in details the various parts of the eye and introduced the idea that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the objects and not the eyes, as was popularly believed at the time due to Ptolemy’s and Euclid’s theory of vision. ‘Sight perceives the light and colour existing on the surface of the contemplated object….Vision perceives necessarily all the objects through supposed straight lines that spread themselves between the object and the central point of the sight [3].’ He also discovered the laws of refraction and carried experiments on the passage of light through various media and the dispersion of light into its constituent colours. He also wrote about optical illusions, spherical and parabolic mirrors, shadows and eclipses. Because of his contribution in the field of optics, he is regarded by many as ‘the father of optics’ [4]. References: [1] ‘Universality and Modernity of Ibn al-Haytham’s Thought and Science’ by Valerie Gonzalez, 2002. The Institute of Ismaili Studies website. http://www.iis.ac.uk/learning/life_long_learning/universality_modernity/universality_modernity.htm (viewed on 25th Dec 2005). [2] Ibn Haytham, The Optics,ed. and tr. A.I. Sabra (Kuwait, 1983; London, 1989). [3] Ibn Haytham, Kitab al-Manazir, vol. I, Chapter 5, text quoted by Jose Miguel Puerta Vilchez, Historia del pensamiento estetico arabe, pp. 689-90 [4] Ibn Al Haytham. http://www.islamonline.com/cgi- bin/news_service/profile_story.asp?service_id=743 (viewed on 25th Dec 2005). Competing interests: None declared |
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Sarkar Haider, Consultant in Cardiology Sheel Hospital, 11 Rajendra Nagar, Bareilly.U.P.India
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The BMJ editorial posted by Dr. Azeem Majeed is a good reminder of the contribution of Moslim scholars to the world of Medicine. Change is the rule of Universe, so is written in Gita (The sacred book of Hindus). Decline of Moslim Power and their contribution to the world of knowledge is no exception in this regard. What is thought provoking is that why and how this decline not only brought about almost a full stop to the rich legacy rather the last few centuries have witnessed the islamic nation at the recieving end; so much so that the common perception in the world today is that moslims are Ignorant, Arrogant and extremely narrow minded .The only thing they seem to understand is blood shed in the name of JIHAD ( the so called holy war). Look around and one will see the islamic nation at the centrestage of almost every conflict and bloodshed in the world. Why it went this way??..!! There can be many explanations but the one I wanted to highlight is the emergence of fundametalistic mindset. Islam unfortunately was hijacked by the intolerant zealots who proclaimed themselves as the flagbearer of this great nation and philosophical school. Not surprisingly the world witnessed inhuman treatment of women at the hands of Taliban like groups who forbade their fundamental right to education . This was absolutely in contrast to the wishes and guidelines of the prophet Mohammad himself who is on record of saying that " It is the sacred duty of every Moslim man and Woman to strive hard for aquiring Knowledge". in another statement he said " Tavel to China if you must! in order to aquire Knowledge". It is a matter of common sense that prophet was stressing upon the non religious knowledge here , Had he meant the knowledge of Islamic laws and jurisprudence then China had no moslims at that point of time!. When Sir Syed Ahmad Khan ( A Moslim Social reformist) was establishing Aligarh Muslim University in India, these very zealots had fought tooth and nail and had opposed the very idea of creating this school, they thought it was unislamic to create a college which was about to teach English language and Modern ways to Moslims . Later this college became the greatest seat of learning for the moslims of Indian subcontinent in particular and the world in general . It was popularly called the OXFORD OF EAST, and has produced world class leaders, several Heads of the States , Olympians and Brilliant Doctors Many of whom today are performing at the world stage , not surprisingly a large proportion of the expatriate moslim doctors working for the Great Britain come directly or indirectly from this great university, it will not be metaphoric if I say that they are the spine of medical services in europe today . It is high time the Islamic nation undergoes honest introspection and learn to live with the world not against the world. The golden past of Islam is not the honour of Moslims alone, It is the illustrious heritage of the species called MAN. Competing interests: None declared |
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John Urquhart, Professor of Biopharmaceutical Sciences, UCSF 975 Hamilton Ave, Palo Alto, CA 94301 USA, none
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In the 2nd Al Hammadi Lecture at the St Andrew's Day Symposium on Therapeutics at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 2002, I drew the contrast between Ibn Sina's Canon of Medicine, written about 1012, and Osler's Principles and Practice of Medicine (1892). Both books have about the same bulk. I posed the question: if the year were 1900, and you were marooned and in need of a guide for practical medicine, which book would you want by your side? My choice was Ibn Sina. A leading reason is that Ibn Sina gives an integrated view of surgery and medicine, whereas Osler largely shuns intervention. Ibn Sina, for example, tells how to judge the margin of healthy tissue to take with an amputation, a basic topic uncovered by Osler. We are now in an era where the gap between medicine and surgery is closing, with the advent of interventional cardiology, gastroenterology, radiology, etc. But Ibn Sina correctly saw medicine and surgery as one.
Competing interests: None declared |
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Joan M. Dugdale, Medical Herbalist 21a Park Rd, Marrickville, NSW 2204, Australia
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Professor Majeed's article is timely, and not simply because it's Christmas: an awareness of this rich history is an antidote to much that is hateful in current politics. It may hearten Professor Majeed to know that many of the physicians he mentions, especially Ibn Sina, are widely honoured by us medical herbalists, who also attempt to emulate his wholism in our practice. Competing interests: None declared |
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Shehnaaz Jivraj, SpR Obstetrics and Gynaecology North Trent Rotation
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I would like to thank Professor Majeed for his editorial. Such an article to enlighten all who practise modern medicine about the origins of what we practise was long overdue. I am a junior doctor training in Obstetrics and Gynaeoclogy and graduated from a British medical school. Unfortunately I am constantly faced with ignorance from colleagues and patients alike about the global positive contribution of Islam as a civilisation. In response Dr Yogendran's comments,I would like to state that such a subject is not boring to a medical student in the UK and a lecture such as this would have certainly got me into the lecture theatre as a medical student. The decline of intellectual power came about within the Islamic civilisation when lack of tolerance and lack of pluralism set in. We must learn from this as lack of pluralism within our society today could also weaken us, as we stand at the forefront of medical advancement in the West. Competing interests: None declared |
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Mohammad T Masoud, Senior House Officer, Ophthalmology Stirling Royal Infirmary, Stirling. UK. FK8 1LU
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I felt sorry after reading Mr Yogendran's response to Dr Majeed's article 'How Islam Changed Medicine'. What he feels is 'boring' is very interesting and important for millions of Muslims throughout the world. The purpose of Dr Azeem's article was precisely to target such prejudiced readers, who have no interest in finding out the true history of Medicine. Ask any doctor in the UK to name a Muslim physician who has contributed towards Medicine, or ask Mr Yogendran to name the hundreds of surgical instruments invented by Muslim surgeons that he uses and you will know why Dr Azeem's article is so important. Due to the prejudices of the West the history of Medicine has been selectively edited and the role of Muslim scholars deleted. I think there is no need to mix present politics with this subject. Before pointing towards others, Mr Yogendran should perhaps consider how radical changes in his part of the world may be changing medicine. Competing interests: None declared |
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Luis A. Castro, Orthopedic Surgeon Hospital Dr R.A.C.G.-San Jose,Costa Rica-4050-1000
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When I was in Medical School,a good friend of mine,who was not a Medical Student once said to me "dear Luis,as a good Scientist your are also a perfect barbariam",meaning that I only was interested in topics related to my Scientific formation and nothing else. Professor Majeed's article is a wonderful contribution towards avoiding this "Barbaric Trend" both in Medical Students and Graduated Doctors alike.The roots of our current knowledge are as important today as is the latest technical development in the practice of Medicine,if we want to be real Doctors instead of simple "Barbaric Scientists" Competing interests: None declared |
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Parivash Nourjah, Epidemiologist 529 Coral Reef Drive, Gaithersburg MD 20878, Kamyar Kalantar_zadeh
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In his essay on “how Islam changed medicine”, Majeed wrongly implied that Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Al-Razi (Rhazes) were Arabs (1). Avicenna was a Persian scientist speaking the Persian language as his mother tongue. He wrote both in Persian and in Arabic during the 11th century. During Avicenna’s lifetime, the conventional language for scientific communication was Arabic. Persian scientists writing in Arabic were not Arabs. Similarly in modern times, international scientists writing papers in English for publication in peer-reviewed journals are not necessarily English by birth. Indeed, Avicenna wrote some of his landmark works in Persian, a task that would not have been performed by an Arab scientist. Avicenna’s Persian heritage including his Persian language and his Persian works are well described in Prof. Muntner’s analyses and reports about the Persian medicine and its relation to Jewish and other medical science (2). Adding the prefix “Al-” to the names of scientists or books does not make them Arabic in origin. Al-Razi (Rhazes, 864-930 A.D.) is also Persian, born at Ray, Iran (3,4). Persians and other non-Arab nations have contributed significantly to what is known as Islamic era medicine, science, literature and architecture. Modern day historians of the Islamic medicine and science should reflect the facts accurately, avoid misrepresentations of the history and concede to the contributions of non- Arab nations. References: 1. A. Majeed, BMJ 331:1486-1487 2. Z. Muntner, Harofe Haivri Heb Med J 1, 101-11; English transl 166 (1952). 3. L. Richter-Bernburg, Med Secoli 6, 377-92 (1994). 4.L. F. Haas, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54, 483 (Jun, 1991). Competing interests: None declared |
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Shahid Islam, Student B'ham, B21 3HI
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The article isn't about Arab contributions to medicine only. Its about Muslims as a whole. Many people would consider Persians aka Iranians to be Arabs. Arab isn't just restricted to people from Saudi Arabia and is commonly used to refer to people from the Middle East as a whole. I assume the reason you use the term persian is to try and distance him from Arabs and therefore Muslims. Competing interests: None declared |
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Giles N Cattermole, SpR Emergency Medicine UHW, Cardiff CF14 4XW
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I very much appreciated the editorial "How Islam changed medicine". Professor Majeed comments that Al-Nafis "described the pulmonary circulation more than 300 years before William Harvey". Harvey always gets the credit in the West, but I would like to take the opportunity to remind readers that it was the very tragic Michael Servetus who was the first Western writer to describe the pulmonary circulation, in "Christianismi Restitutio" in 1552, finally printed a year before he was burnt at the stake in Geneva. Lomas points this out in his article in the same issue of the BMJ (1). Colombo (1516-1559) can also lay claim to having made the discovery, in "De re anatomica" (completed in 1559). It would seem that all three men made the same discovery independently, and for different reasons. Al-Nafis realised the interventricular septum was too thick to allow blood to pass across. Colombo noticed the large blood flow of the pulmonary vein. Servetus realised the significance of the size of the pulmonary artery. Al -Nafis was first, but none developed an understanding to include the concept of a systemic circulation. That indeed was Harvey's discovery. Sincerely, &c References 1. Lomas D. Painting the history of cardiology. BMJ 2005;331:1533- 1535. 2. Cattermole G. Michael Servetus: physician, Socinian and victim. J R Soc Med 1997;90:640-644. Competing interests: None declared |
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Reza Rostamnia, practicing physician Brooklyn, NY 90103
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It is sad to see that a colleague calls all Middle-Easterners "Arabs". Persians, Turks, Afghans, Kurds, Pakistanis, etc., are not Arabs, no do they speak Arabic. In the Middle East, Persians and Afghans speak Persian, Turks speak Turkish, Pakistanis speak Urdu, Kurds speak Kurdish, etc. No do all Middle-easterners are Moslems. There are many Zaratostrians, Christians, Jewish, Hindu, Bahais, etc. Avicenna and Razes were Persian, not Arab. Kharazmi was Persian Zaratostrian, not a Moslem. Arabs called him "majus" means non-Moslem. One wonders when the history can finally be portrayed without bias. Competing interests: None |
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Usha K. Sharma, Pharmaceutical Physician Mumbai 400088, INDIA
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Dr. Majeed has mentioned how Arabic translations of Sanskrit writings were done and disseminated to the Western World. But were they acknowledged as originating from Ancient Hindu medical treatises? Or were they just passed on without referring to the glorious and unparalleled tradition of Healing in Ancient India? The treatise "Medicine, an Illustrated History" by Lyons,Chief Surgeon and archivist, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, states, and I quote verbatim, "Further, the translation of the Ayurvedic literature into Persian and Arabic in the eleventh century A.D. led eventually to further spread of Indian Medical lore into Europe as writings in Arabic became part of European culture in the Middle Ages." India was well versed in surgical techniques, and surgical instruments used then bear a striking resemblance to those used nowadays. Rhinoplasty, ear-lobule repair, cataract extractions etc were all routinely carried out. Caesarean section was performed. Readers of the BMJ may be interested to know that as early as 200 B.C. to 200 A.D. a system of ethics was defined and expected to be followed by medical practitioners of the times, which is almost identical in content and spirit to the Hippocratic oath. "In many ways, the student's final commitment resembled closely the Hippocratic Oath of Greece. Our Code of Ethics stated 'Dedicate yourself entirely to helping the sick, even though this be at the cost of your own life. Never harm the sick, not even in thought.....The physician should observe all the rules of good dress and conduct....He must not speak outside the house of anything that takes place in the patient's house....May the Gods help you if you follow this rule. Otherwise, may the gods be against you.'" Perhaps an editorial on the contributions of the ancient Hindus to modern medicine would be featured by your journal in time to come. Your readers would find it an eye-opener. Reference: "Ancient India" p 104 - 119, in 'Medicine An Illustrated History', by Lyons A.S. and Petrucelli II, R.J., Publ. Harry N. Abrams Inc, New York, 1978. Competing interests: None declared |
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Dr. Sucharita A. Nanivadekar, Consultant Gastroenterologist Mumbai 400019
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It was quite extraordinary reading Dr.Azeem Majeed's article regarding the glorious contributions of Islam to medicine. The moot point is that did the physicians he mentions ever think of themselves as Islamic? Did they contribute because they were Islamic or it was an accident of fate because those countries by military might had achieved pre-eminence just as Europe did in the 17-20th centuries? Did they contribute because they thought themselves as Islamic for the greater glory of Islam or just because they were good physicians who had an opportunity of a prosperous state, some powerful patrons ( a la Medici) It is also quite laughable to claim that all the medical heritage of Greece, Egypt and other countries would have been lost if not for Islam. Islamic armies destroyed all the ancient Universities of India such as Takhshasila and Nalanda where literally hundreds of students studied from countries as diverse as Rome, Greece, Sri Lanka, China, Cambodia, Thailand, etc. Hats off to the Islamic doctors for saving the ancient texts from being destroyed by the military of their own countries. Competing interests: None declared |
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Ahmad Reza Rasekhi, Scientific editor, Journal of Medical Research Office of Journal of Medical Research, PO Box:71345-1877, Shiraz, Iran
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Dear Editor, I read the article entitled" How Islam changed medicine" [1] and I felt very sorry about it. I called it "Politics in Medicine". The author mixed two things at a glance: Islam and Arabs, at the same time he prides Arabs on two eminent Iranian scientists, Avicenna and Rhazes. As everyone knows today and it can also be simply retrieved from search engines [2], both are purely Iranians. Avicenna, born in 980, Bukhara, Iran and died 1037, Hamadan, Iran, the great anatomist[3], physiologist [3], psychologist [4], surgeon [5], internist [6], pharmacologist [7], cardiologist [8], gynecologist [9], philosopher [2], mathematician [2], poet [2], astronomer [2], chemist [7], has numerous up-to-date ideas on neurosurgery [3], anesthesiology[10], orthopedics [3], nephrology [11], pulmunology [12], and many other fields in medicine and other sciences. He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian philosophy and medicine [2]. He composed the Shafa “Book of Healing”, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and the Canon of Medicine, which is among the most popular references in the world of medicine. The so called Prince of Medicine, Avicenna, the most famous and influential of the philosopher-scientists of Islam, as is clearly described in detail in the Encyclopedia Britannica [2], and in numerous other non-Arabic indexes, is an Iranian scientist. The other eminent Iranian physician, the great founder of alcohol, is Rhazes (pertaining to Rayy, his birth place) [13-14]. Born in 865, Rayy, Persia [2] died 925 or 935, Rayy, he was the Iranian heir of Socrates in philosophy and of Hippocrates in medicine. In his comprehensive books, he collected Greek, Syrian, Arabic, and Indian medical sciences and criticized many of them. Several of his works were translated into Latin and other languages. The Spiritual Physic of Rhazes, is a popular ethical treatise and major alchemical study. He was considered one of the greatest physicians of the early Islamic world [2] His genus works on chemistry, biochemistry and many interesting areas of medicine made his works and books the most important and reliable references of medicine for centuries in both poles of the globe [14-16]. As is noted in the letter of Azeem Majid [1], Arabic language was the scientific language of the area in the epoch of Rhazes and Avicenna and it is why they published their works in Arabic. The tombs of Avicenna in Hamedan Province and that of Rhazes in Rayy both near the Capital of Iran, Tehran, are the places visited by tens of thousands of tourists annually. As one can see, by omitting these two "stars in the sky of medicine" from the letter of Azim, the worth of the article largely diminishes. 1-Britannica.com 2- Azeem Majeed: How Islam changed medicine. BMJ 2005;331:1486-7 3-Naderi S, Acar F, Mertol T, Arda MN: Functional anatomy of the spine by Avicenna in his eleventh century treatise. The Canons of Medicine. Neurosurgery. 2003 2(6):1449-53. 4: Namazi MR: Avicenna. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(11):1796. 980-1037. 5: Qayumi AK: Avicenna: a bright star from the east. J Invest Surg. 1998;11(4):243-4. 6: Masic I, Ridanovic: Avicenna: a great physician and thinker. Z Med Arh 1993;47(1-2):43-6. 7:Denisenko PP, Nuraliev IuN: Abu Ali Ibn-Sina and pharmacology; on the millennium of the birth of Avicenna. Farmakol Toksikol. 1980;43(6):753-4 8: Ali MI: Avicenna's approach to cardiac diseases. Bull Indian Inst Hist Med Hyderabad. 1993;23(2):137-41. 10- Haddad FS: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) advocated orotracheal intubation 1000 years Ago: documentation of Arabic and Latin originals. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 2003 ;17(2):155-62. 11: Hussain S: Body fluids according to Avicenna. Bull Indian Inst Hist Med Hyderabad. 1983;13(1-4):52-8. 12: Rasheed BM: Avicenna's influence on European medicine. Bull Indian Inst Hist Med Hyderabad. 1981;1-4:99-102. 12:Sharma OA: Avicenna's description of tuberculosis. Bull Indian Inst Hist Med Hyderabad. 1981;1-4:83-6. 13:Tan SY: [Some questions about the Greek sources of Rhazes' Continens] Med Secoli 2002;14(2):383-406. 14:Haddad FS: Rhazes (835-925 A.D.): medical scholar of Islam. Singapore Med J. 2002;43(7):331-2. 15: El Gammal SY: Pioneers of Arabian medicine.Bull Soc Liban Hist Med. 1993;(3):74-83. 16: Haas LF: The public health of Rhazes.Hist Sci Med. 1982;17:105-10. Competing interests: None declared |
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Azeem Majeed, Professor of Primary Care London W6 8RP
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My editorial was about the contributions of Islamic societies to medicine. Islamic societies were multi-ethnic and multi-religious, and important contributions to science and medicine were made by scholars and physicians who were not Arabs or Muslims. For example, much of the work of translating Syriac and Greek texts into Arabic was carried out by Christians. Similarly, not all the great physicians of the Islamic era were Arabs and two of those mentioned in the editorial, Al Razi and Ibn Sina, were born in present day Iran and Uzbekistan respectively. To have avoided confusion, I should have been clearer in separating out the contributions of Arabs from non-Arabs. However, the length of the article precluded a lengthy discussion of the ethnic background of any of the physicians discussed. Competing interests: None declared |
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Mohammad A. Al-Jubouri, Consultant Chemical Pathologist St. Helens & Knowsley Hospitals NHS Trust
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Professor Azeem Majeed editorial is a gentle reminder that under Islamic rule, people from all ethnic and religious backgrounds had the opportunity to develop their full potential in all walks of life. It is disheartening that some people have expressed their opinions influenced by their prejudices against the religion of Islam. Competing interests: None declared |
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Sepideh Omidvari, Psychiatrist, Assistant Professor Iranian Institute for Health Sciences Research
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In his essay, Professor Majeed mentioned that "Arab" physicians and scholars laid the basis for medical practice in Europe (1). Yet more than two-third of Islamic scientists and physicians have originally been Iranian (2) and some historians believe that the Iranians have taught the Greeks the principles of what is called Greek medicine (3). It is true that "the national medicine is part of the international medicine and should never be affected by the excessive patriotism" (3) but it should never be forgotten that "ignoring any member of the medicine family means not considering the whole family as important as it is" (3). References: 1. Majeed A. How Islam changed medicine. BMJ 2005; 331: 1486-1487. 2. Nafisi A. The preface of translator. In: Mohammad Ibn Zakarya Razi. Man la yahzoroh-o-attabib. The first edition. Tehran: Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research (ACECR); 1985. 3. Elgood C. A. A medical history of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate from the earliest times until the year 1932. Cambridge University Press; 1921. Competing interests: None declared |
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Ikechukwu O. Azuonye, Consultant Psychiatrist 10 Harley Street, London, W1G 9PF
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How is change brought about in Medicine? It is through research that leads to the development of new theoretical knowledge, procedures and systems of management that Medicine (meaning all the methods of prevention and treatment of human disease) is changed for the better. Islam is a religion based on the Koran and its derivatives such as the Sharia Law. The Koran contains no information of a medical nature, and does not suggest any medical research ideas or any procedures that would improve the practice of Medicine. Dr Majeed is completely misguided in his belief that Islam has changed Medicine in any way. Medical practitioners and scientists who, in their personal lives, subscribed to Islam may have made great contributions to Medicine, but it is these individuals, not Islam, that brought about the changes; just as it is not Christianity, Judaism, Jainism, Sikhism, Hinduism, Taoism, Baha'ism, Confucianism, Atheism, Satanism, Animism or any other faiths that have made the discoveries of individual scientists who happened to subscribe to these religious systems of belief. Competing interests: None declared |
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Salah Abdelmonem, Professor of Clinical Oncology Alexandria Faculty of Medicine
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The author of the editorial has provided a concise but informative review of medical landmarks in the history of Islamic civilisation. However, The book entitled 'Al-Quanon fil'tib' is translated as the 'canon of Medicine'. In arabic 'Al-Quanon' means 'the Law'. Therefore, the book title literally means 'The Law of Medicine' which refers to guidlines "not legal matters". Competing interests: None declared |
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Husain Yahya, Consultant physician/dermatologist Barau Dikko Specialist Hospital, Kaduna, Nigeria
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Dr Azuonye’s assertion that the Qur’an did not suggest any medical research ideas shows a lack of real knowledge and understanding of Islam as a whole and the Qur’an in particular. There are so many verses that call on man to observe and reflect on nature and natural phenomena. This constant exhortation to the “men of knowledge and understanding”, as the Qur’an calls “scientists”, no doubt served as the catalyst that had inspired these early Muslims, who rightly saw this as a religious duty, to explore the world around them and (thereby) make such contributions to science and medicine which the BMJ and many others recognize and appreciate. Competing interests: None declared |
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Salman Ali Khan, Professor National university science and technology Rawalpindi Pakistan, 46000
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I feel many learned responders to Professor Majeed's article are confused in their understanding of Islam as a religion and Islam as a civilization and way of life with a glorious past and its contribution to science, medicine, philosophy,art and literature.I was astonished to read comments that the Quran does not mention anything about medicine.I am sure the writer has passed these comments without reading the Quran.In fact the Quran has the most exhaustive references and recommendations in regard to health ranging from breastfeeding, nutrition,to embryology and reproductive health.In addition, there is invitation to humankind on each and every page to think and do research on all topics including medicine,science and the universe in general.Professor Majeed's article is a timely reminder to present day scientists that history should be seen in its true perspective without bias and the contribution to the development of medicine and science by physicians of muslim era should be acknowledged. Competing interests: None declared |
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Farzaneh Zahedi, MD, Researcher, Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, 14114, Bagher Larijani, MD; Prof. of Endocrinology, Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Centre, and Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Centre, Tehran University of Medical Sciences
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Introduction We live in a pluralist world in the content of different historical antecedents and glories. Certainly, openness to the narratives of others and appreciation of the history of various communities could be not only good way to achieve a pragmatic dialogue between civilizations, but also it is a moral responsibility. The medical science has been constituted by experiences of all human, all over the world and during the ages. The Greece, Indians, Chinese, Persians, Arab and other nations have had influences in medicine progress during different eras. However, the flag of leadership has been handed over to different nations each epoch. We read the article entitled "How Islam changed Medicine"(1), the comments (2,3,4) and some rapid responses to it, with full of interest. We would like to add some points. It is obvious that Medicine has been highly developed and very productive under the Islamic Empire (7th-13th centuries). The great advances were made by Muslim physicians in Medieval that has been the source of inspiration of scientists during the later centuries. Islam and Medicine Islam stressed the importance of learning, encouraged cleanliness and personal hygiene, developed the respect of authority and discipline, forbade destruction, and tolerated other religions (5). Other than some verses in Holy Quran, there are many narrations of the Prophet Mohammad (PUH) (570-632 AD) that express the emphasis Islam laid on science. Among them are two famous phrases from the Prophet: "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "He who leaves his home in search of knowledge, walks in the path of God". Based on these deep attentions, the followers of the Muhammad (PUH) established elementary schools, usually in the mosques (6). Medicine in Islam passed through three stages (5): First, the stage of translation of foreign scientific sources into Arabic (7th-9th centuries); Second, the stage of excellence and genuine contribution in which the Islamic physicians were the leaders and the source of new chapters to medicine (9th-13th centuries); and third, the stage of decline (after 13th century) (5). Hundreds of Greek, Syriac, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit texts were rendered into Arabic in the first phase. However, this knowledge was not only to become translated, but was to be expounded, assimilated, exhaustively added to and subsequently codified, and 'Islamicized' (7). Numerous aspects of Islamic medicine were unquestionably original (8). It must be borne in mind that, as Lawrence I Conrad, in the book of "Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine" (8) has written: "The language of the Arabs became the common cultural denominator of the medieval Middle East and was spoken as the lingua Franca by not only Muslims, but Christians and Jews as well" (8). He has stated that some of the most prominent monuments of formal medical learning were written in Arabic by Persian scholars (8). Medical education was empowered in Islamic civilization era. Training of physicians in basic sciences, providing and launching a clinical training curriculum in internal medicine and surgery, and licensing of physicians were established in this era (9). Also, employing inspectors to inspect drugs and maintain quality control of drugs was carried out in that period (8). The development of efficient hospitals was an outstanding contribution of Islamic medicine (9,10). The hospitals were run by government and the directors of hospitals were physicians (9). All services were free and on discharge, each patient received five gold pieces to support himself until he could return to work (9). The first institutions for the care of the insane were established in the ninth and tenth century AD in the Islamic cities of Baghdad, Cairo, Fez and Damascus (11). Medical description of differences between some diseases such as smallpox and measles, and goiter and thyroid cancer, scientific definition of hay fever (allergic rhinitis), identification of the properties of sulphuric acid and alcohol, using silk sutures and alcohol for homeostasis, using alcohol as an antiseptic, the use of the first anesthetic drugs and a cauterizing iron in the control of bleeding, emphasis on anatomy, implantation of dental prosthesis carved from cow's bone, using cotton in surgical dressing, teaching lithotomy position, description of tracheotomy and varicose veins stripping, the first colostomy, and many other examples are some of the Muslim physicians' innovations during ninth to eleventh century (AD) (9,12). In same period, Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna, 973-1037 AD) wrote the book "Canon" (Al Qanon fi al Tibb) in medicine (in 5 volumes) which was an encyclopedia containing more than one million words (5,13). It was translated to many languages and was the reference for medical schools in Europe up to the 17th century AD. Likewise, the other famous Iranian scientist, the Rhazes'(Mohammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, 865-925) books "the al-Inclusive Work on Medicine" (al-Hawi fi al- Tibb) and "the Mansurian Book of Medicine" (al-Kitab al-Mansuri fi al-Tibb) were among important books at that time (8,12). Given the religious importance of moral virtues, Muslim physicians have put much emphasis on ethical principles in their practice (13). Most of Muslim physicians would allocate part of their books on medical ethics. For thousands of years, ethics have been recognized as an essential requirement in the making of a physician (14). In the 9th century, Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn-e Raban Tabari (807-861 AD), described in the book "the Paradise of Wisdom" (Ferdous al Hekmat) the Islamic codes of ethics as: personal characters of the physician, his obligation towards patients, his obligation towards the community, his obligations towards his colleagues, and his obligations towards his assistants (5,15,16). This book got printed in Berlin by Professor Edward Browne in 1928 (17). Rhazes was also strictly committed to the principles of medical ethics. He made some manuscripts on principles of medical ethics and so his book entitled "Spiritual Medicine" (Teb e Rohani) is about ethics. Avicenna has also comprehensive moral advices about clinical medicine and physicians' practice in his medical books. One of the most extensive works dealing with ethics was written in the 10th century AD by Ishag ibn Ali al-Ruhawi, a Christian who embraced to Islam (15,18). In his book, "Ethics of a physician" (Adab al-Tabib), the subjects such as the faith and the loyalthy of physicians, problems of responsibility, ethical dilemmas in patient-physician relationships, what the physician must avoid and beware of, manners of the visitors, medical art for the people's moral values, and harmful habits were brought (15). This book translated to English in 1960s (19,20). The book "Adab al-Tabib" is an illustration of the fact that problems of responsibility, ethical dilemmas, and needs of the society are nothing new to medicine (15). The medical recommendations of Ali ibn Abbas Ahwazi, knows as Haly Abbas, to the contemporary physicians, known as "Ahwazi Advises", highlighted the ethics of medicine (13,21). He has included the exhortation in his book "The Perfect Art of Medicine" (Kamel al-sanaat al-Tibbia) (12,21). It is more comprehensive than the Hippocratic Oath. In 931 AD, Caliph Al-Muqtadir ordered to examine all those who practiced medicine (9). From That time on, licensing examinations were mandatory. In 10th century, in addition to licensing, the Hippocratic Oath was mandatory for medical practitioners in Islamic hospitals. Prospect The Islamic empire for more than 1000 years remained the most advanced nation in the world. After the Renaissance in Europe (17th century AD), the writings of Islamic physicians and philosophers were eventually translated form Arabic into Latin and became the basis of the development of modern medicine (6,7). Some believe that medical science rests upon a Greek foundation (22,23), but it is certain that it was very highly developed under the Islamic Empire (24). Between the epoch which stretches from Pythagoras to Plato and the epoch comprised in the seventeenth century of the modern world, nearly two thousand years elapsed (25). This era was coincident with the "Islamic Empire". Muslims have fostered the flame of civilization, and handed it over to Europe in the best possible condition. Europe, in turn, passed it to the United States of America, and the cycle continues (5). Finally, it should be mentioned that in many Islamic countries, including Iran, more emphasis on medical progress and medical ethics have been made in recent decades (26,27). Likewise, Islamic viewpoints about new technologies have been presented by religious scholars (28,29). Compilation of the National Ethical Guidelines in the different fields of biomedical research (containing ethical guidelines for clinical trial, research on minors, genetic research, gamete and embryo research, organ and tissue transplantation research, and research on animals) is one of the best instances of such activities accomplished in our country in recent years (30). Acknowledgement: We would like to thank Dr. Javad Tavakoly Bazzaz for his valuable comments and Dr. Fatemeh Bandarian for sincere cooperation. References 1. Majeed A. How Islam changed Medicine. BMJ 2005; 331 (7531):1486-7. 2. Masoud MT, Masoud F. How Islam changed Medicine: Ibn al-Haytham and optics. BMJ 2006; 332(7533):120-a. 3. Urquhart J. How Islam changed Medicine: Ibn sina (Avicenna) saw medicine and surgery as one. BMJ 2006; 332(7533):120-b. 4. Cattermole GN. How Islam changed Medicine: Al-Nafis, Servetus, and Colombo. BMJ 2006; 332(7533):120-C. 5. Abouleish E. Contributions of Islam to medicine. In Athar SH. Islamic medicine. Available from: www.islam-usa.com/im3.html (access 4/2005). 6. Magner LN. A history of the life sciences. New York: Medical Dekker, Inc, 2002, PP.66-76. 7. Nagamia HF. Islamic medicine: history and current practice. JISHIM 2003; 2: 19-30. Available also from International Institute of Islamic Medicin (IIIM) at: www.iiim.org/ islamed3.html (access 5/2005). 8. Conrad LI. Arab-Islamic medicine. In: Bynum WF, Porter R. Companion Encyclopedia of the history of medicine. Volume 1, London: Routledge, First edition, 1993, pp. 676-727. 9. Syed IB. Islamic medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times. JISHIM 2002; 2: 2-9. Available also from: www.islam-usa.com/im4.html (access 4/2005). 10. Lyons AS, Petruccelli RJ. Medicine: illustrated history. New York: HN Abrams Inc. Publishers, 1978, pp. 295–317. 11. Duffin J. History of medicine: A scandalously short introduction. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001, PP. 219, 246,279,307,310. 12. Elgood CL. Medicine in Persia. Brooklyn: AMS Press, 1934. 13. Bagheri A. A brief history of medical ethics in Iran. Available from: www.lifestudies.org/ iranbiohist.html (access 5/2005). 14. Amine ARC, Elkadi A. Islamic code of medical professional ethics. Bulletin of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 1: Proceeding of the first International Conference on Islamic Medicine, January 1981, Kuwait, pp. 652-657. 15. Al Ghazal SK. Medical ethics in Islamic history at a Glance. JISHIM 2004; 3: 12–13. 16. Hamarnesh S. The physician and the health professions in medieval Islam. Bull N Y Acad Med 1971; 47: 1088-1110. 17. Sarmadi MT. 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At: www.newadvent.org/cathen/10122a.htm (access 5/2005). 24. History for kids: Ancient medicine. At: www.historyforkids.org/learn/science/ medicine/ (access 5/2005). 25. Witehead AN. Science and the modern world. UK: Cambridge University Press, 1925, P.34. 26. Larijani B, Zahedi F, Malek–Afzali H. Medical ethics activities in Iran. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (EMHJ) 2005; 11(5/6): 1061- 1072. 27. Larijani B, Malek–Afzali H, Zahedi F, Motevaseli E. Strengthening Medical Ethics by Strategic Plan in Islamic Republic of Iran. Developing World Bioethics 2006; 6(2): 106–110. 28. Larijani B, Zahedi F, Taheri E. Ethical and legal aspects of organ transplantation in Iran. Transplant Proc 2004; 36(5); 1241-4. 29. Larijani B, Zahedi F. Islamic perspective on human cloning and stem cell research. Transplant Proc 2004; 36(10): 3188-9. 30. Medical Ethics and Medical History Research Centre (MEHRC). National Ethical Guidelines in the different fields of biomedical research (in Farsi). Available from: http://mehr.tums.ac.ir/code.asp (access May 2006). Competing interests: None declared |
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