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except in England and Wales
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Prisons and infectious diseases - time for a robust response
- Oscar Simooya, Nawa sanjobo (27 November 2001)
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Tattooing and hepatitis C infection
- Tweg Abraham (28 November 2001)
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Failure to control for duration of injecting causes results to be misleading
- Bobby Smyth (11 December 2001)
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High prevalence of viral and other sexually transmitted diseases in Indian prisons
- Sarman Singh (19 December 2001)
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Web versus printed version of BMJ papers
- Jean Long, Shane Allwright, Joseph Barry, Lelia Thornton, Sheilagh Reaper Reynolds, Fiona Barry, John Parry (8 January 2002)
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Power analysis
- Susanne Habicht (29 March 2002)
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Oscar Simooya, University Medical Officer: Senior Clinical Oficer Copperbelt University, P O Box 21692, Kitwe, Zambia, Nawa sanjobo
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The study reported by Long et al(1),is yet another reminder to us all, that prison health is still a poor cousin of public health outside jail. In particular, the response to the threat of blood borne diseases in prisons throughout the world has been slow and at times largely ineffectual. We have recently concluded a survey of HIV seroprevalance and risk behaviours in Zambian prisons (2) and found an HIV seroprevalance rate of 27%(421/1566 inmates). This finding is much higher than the national average of 19% but is comparable to the high HIV rates of up to 32% in the large cities. The main risk factor identified for HIV positive inmates was a past history of an STI. Although we did not find a link between male to male sex (MSM)and HIV result, we believe there are some inmates who may be getting infected inside. Only 3.8% of inmates agreed to having MSM relationships in one to one interviews but indirect questioning suggested much larger numbers of men having sex with other men. No condoms were available in all prisons. We did not test our samples for antibodies to hepatitis B and C, but we found that 17.4% of inmates had been tattoed in prison while 63.4% of prisoners reported sharing razor blades. The possibility of blood borne infections in this situation can not be ruled out. We therefore plan to screen our samples for both hepatitis B and C in the next phase of our study. However, and unlike in Irish prisons, only 4(0.2%)inmates reported injecting drugs and this may therefore be a minor risk behaviour for transmission of blood borne infections in Zambian prisons. The main thrust of current efforts to prevent HIV transmission in Zambian jails is still intensive health education (3). Condoms are not distributed and conjugal visits are not yet permitted. We believe that health education alone may not be sufficient to stop the spread of HIV and propose that more robust and bold policies be considered including the use of non custodial sentences for first entrants and juvenile offenders. At a time when HAART has become fashionable it is sad that in prisons, the HIV/AIDS debate is still in the late 1980s. 1. Long J, Allwright S, Barry J, Reynolds SR, Thornton L, Bradley J, Parry JV. Prevalance of antibodies to hapatitis B, hapatitis C, and HIV and risk factors in entrants to Irish prisons: a national cross sectional survey. BMJ 2001; 323(7323):1209 2. Simooya OO, Sanjobo N, Kaetano L, Sijumbila G, Munkonze F, Tailoka F, Musonda R. AIDS 2001;15(13):1741-1744 3. Simooya O0, Sanjobo N. Culture Health & Sexuality 2001;3(2):214 -251 Competing interests: We are both interested in prison health and have conducted research in Zambian prisons. |
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Tweg Abraham, Director Personel andOccupational Medicine Clinic Tel- Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Israel
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Tattooing is an independent risk factor for hepatitis C infection not just in prisoners. In the general population, at least in the U.S, tattooing in commercial tatto parlos may have been resposible for more hepatitis C infections than injecting-drug use(1).
1.Haley RW, Fischer P.Commercial tattooing as apotentially important source of hepatitis C infection.Medicine 2001;80:134-151. Competing interests:none Sincerely Dr. Tweg Abraham |
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Bobby Smyth, Specialist registrar in child psychiatry Seymour House, 41-43 Seymour St., Liverpool, L3 5TE
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Editor - The provision of harm reduction in the prison setting remains a contentious political and scientific issue. Long et al, in their cross sectional survey of Irish prisoners, have provided further data which will certainly add to this debate(1). The Irish prison services are to be applauded for their proactive stance against hepatitis B infection through their vaccination program. Long’s study also reports that testing positive for hepatitis C was significantly associated with having previously spent a greater length of time in prison. This finding emerged from a multivariate analysis, suggesting that it is an ‘independent’ association. Although the authors acknowledge the limitations of the study design, they do seem to suggest that unsafe injecting practices in prisons are responsible for the elevated rates of infection among recidivist prisoners. Interestingly, the reported rates of needle sharing and hepatitis C are no higher than rates found among Irish injecting drug users recruited from therapeutic settings(2,3). There is a burgeoning literature on hepatitis C infection among injecting drug users which demonstrates that the most consistent predictor of infection is the duration of the injecting history(2,4). Unfortunately, the multivariate analysis conducted in this study made no attempt to control for the duration of the injecting history, despite that fact that this data was available to the authors. Injecting drug users commit acquisitive crime in order to fund their drug misuse, and therefore find themselves in prison frequently. It seems likely that the length of time that they have spent in prison will correlate quite closely to the duration of their injecting history. Consequently, the detected association between imprisonment and hepatitis C may simply result from the fact that the former is a proxy measure for duration of injecting. This study had the opportunity to examine for higher rates of hepatitis C among injecting drug users with longer prison histories, while controlling for the number of years of injecting. If this had been demonstrated, it could then, and only then, be vigorously argued that prison was genuinely an independent risk factor for hepatitis C. Why the authors failed to examine this issue is unclear. Despite my belief in value of needle exchanges in the community, this study fails to provide solid evidence to support proposals for such provision in prisons. There are opposing and unexplained findings such as the large proportion of injectors who cease injecting while imprisoned(4) and the detection of a reduced incidence of hepatitis C among injectors imprisoned for longer periods(5). Competing Interests - Nil. 1 Long J, Allwright S, Barry J, Reaper Reynolds S, Thornton L, Bradley F et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV and risk factors in entrants to Irish prisons: a national cross sectional survey. BMJ 2001; 323: 1209-13. 2 Smyth BP, Keenan E, O’Connor JJ. Bloodborne viral infection in Irish injecting drug users. Addiction 1998; 93: 1649-56. 3 Smyth BP, Barry J, Keenan E. Syringe borrowing persists in Dublin despite harm reduction interventions. Addiction 2001; 96: 717-727. 4 Stark K, Bienzle U, Vonk R, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I. History of syringe sharing in prison and risk of hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus infection among injecting drug users in Berlin. Int J Epidemiol 1997; 26: 1359-65. 5 Crofts N, Stewart T, Hearne P, Ping XY, Breschkin AM, Locarnini SA. Spread of bloodborne viruses among Australian prison entrants. BMJ 1995; 310: 285-288. |
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Sarman Singh, Additional Professor & Head of Clinical Microbiology All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi-110029 (India)
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High prevalence of viral and other sexually transmitted diseases in Indian prisons I read with great interest a recently published article in the esteemed BMJ (24 November, 2001), on Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV and risk factors in entrants to Irish prisons: a national cross sectional survey by Long J, et al. 1 The authors have found prevalence of anti-HBc antibodies in 6%, anti-HCV in 22% and anti- HIV in 2% Irish prisoners. They a conclude that use of injecting drugs could be single most important factor for high hepatitis C virus infection in Irish prisons. They suggest need for increased infection control and harm reduction measures in Irish prisons. I fully agree with the authors on their recommendations. However, the authors fail to acknowledge the similar reports published from around the world and particularly from the countries where HIV infection is highly epidemic. I myself and my colleagues for the first time from Indian sub- continent conducted a study in 1998 on Indian prisoners.2 In the study 240 male and nine female jail inmates confined in a district jail near Delhi were screened for sexually transmitted and blood borne diseases including HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B & C viral infections. The inmates aged 15-50 years with a mean of 24.8 yr. + 0.11. Out of the 240 males, 115 were married and 125 unmarried. 184 (76.6%) males gave history of penetrative sex. Of the 184, 53 (28.8%) were homo-or bisexuals and 131 (71.2%) had sex with women only. Sixty of 131 (45.8%) were faithful to their partners while 124 gave a history of having multiple sexual partners and 100 of them (80.6%) had unprotected sex. 83 of these 100 also had had sex with commercial sex workers (CSW). One hundred twenty six were addicted for alcohol, 44 for smack/charas and only 8 had a history of intravenous drug abuse. On examination 28 of the 240 (11.6%) had active hepatitis with or without history of jaundice in last two years, 25 (10.4%) active pulmonary TB and 11 (4.6%) had syphilitic ulcers on the penis. Four fifth of the teenagers confined to a particular barrack had moderate to severe scabies. Three males (1.3%) were found to be western blot confirmed HIV-1 positive while 28 (11.1%) men & 2 (22.2%) women were positive for HBsAg. Twelve (5.0%) males but no women, were found to be positive for anti-HCV antibodies. Out of the three HIV positive persons, one was a IVD user, second was a drug addict and frequent CSW visitor while the third was a homosexual. This study gave clear indications that sexually transmitted and blood borne infections are highly prevalent in jail premises and pose a threat of rapid spread of these infections through IVD use and homosexuality. Interestingly our study differed from Long’s findings that we had more Hepatitis B infection than the Hepatitis C infection. Also in our study intravenous use was less frequent as compared to Irish prisons and homosexuality was probably the most important risk factor in Indian prisons. The study emphasized on more awareness about HIV and hepatitis virus infection in Indian prisons. Sincerely, Sarman Singh, MD
1. Long J, Allwright S, Barry J, Reynolds SR, Thornton L, Bradley F, Parry JV. BMJ 2001;323:1209 ( 24 November ) 2. Singh S, Prasad R, Mohanty A. High prevalence of Sexually transmitted and blood borne infections amongst the inmates of a District Jail in North India. Int J STD AIDS 1999 ; 10 (7) : 475-78. |
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Jean Long, Lecturer in international health Department of Community Health & General Practice, TCD, AMNCH, Tallaght, Dublin 24, Rep. of Ireland, Shane Allwright, Joseph Barry, Lelia Thornton, Sheilagh Reaper Reynolds, Fiona Barry, John Parry
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Editor - We were happy to have our recent paper (1) published in the new dual format of short printed paper with full web version. However we would like to point out that this can create difficulties for readers who may read the paper version only and miss essential explanatory details. This would seem to have been the case with Dr B. Smyth. He takes us to task (electronic response for Long et al - Failure to control for duration of injecting causes results to be misleading) for ascribing 'independent' association status to length of time in prison without controlling for time since first injecting. In fact, as the web version makes clear, in the injector group we did control for both time since first injecting and length of time in prison. Time since first injecting was not significant and length of time in prison remained significant. This was not clear from the paper version, but it is clear in table 3 (see also table 3 footnotes) of the full text version on the BMJ website. May we suggest that in future the BMJ recommend that readers wishing to comment on journal articles read the full text versions on the website? Yours sincerely,
1 Long J, Allwright S, Barry J, Reaper Reynolds S, Thornton L, Bradley F, et al. Prevalence of antibodies to hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV and risk factors in entrants to Irish prisons: a national cross sectional survey. BMJ 2001; 323: 1209-13 |
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Susanne Habicht, medicine assistant Berne (Switzerland)
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Dear authors, may I ask a methodical question? From where did you learn the number needed to recruit (534 participants) in order to estimate the prevalence of antibodies to HCV? Is there any literature or formula available,and, if yes, how can I get it? |
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